On ‘Havamal’

The mythic poetry of the Edda are of two main kinds, narratives usually illustrative or pedagogic, and didactic poems, Havamal reflects both these elements. In Havamal different narratives concerning Odinn are presented within the framework of a didactic poem. Similarly in Edda (c.1220) narratives about the gods are didactic and illustrative of either myth or of the way myth was used to convey meaning in skaldic poetry. The title Havamal ‘Sayings of the High One’ indicates that the compiler believed the source of the wisdom in this poem was Odinn. In the very last strophe of the poem the title is referred to: “Now are Har’s sayings - spoken in Har’s hall.”^[1] That the poem is spoken in the first person whilst dealing with mythical narratives of Odinn would also seem to support the title.

Havamal is thought to be of tenth century Norwegian origin, corroborated by the fact that it was quoted by Eyvind the Plagiarist in his 960 lay to Hakon the Good, Hakonarsmal^[2]. It is also likely that the mystical passages, relating to the runes, originated in Norway, as the cult of Odinn was a lot stronger in Norway^[3] than Iceland. The presence of Odinn dominates Icelandic mythic poetry and prose, yet there is little cultic or place name evidence in Iceland which relates to Odinn. Why should a God who has had such a great impact on Icelandic literature leave so slight a mark on its landscape? This might be due to the fact that Odinn is the god of the most literate section of the Icelandic community, the God of poets, and hence more celebrated by them. It is possible that the myths do not truly represent the nature of religious practice in Norse lands, that in Havamal we only have access to a privileged, literate discourse.

The poem itself is at least six original poems joined to form one sequence and is commonly broken down into five sections^[4]. The first section of Havamal is called Gestathattr or the guest’s section, containing allusions to a narrative related to a variant of the myth of the winning of the mead of poetry from Gunnlod (strophe 13). The “Heron of Heedlessness”^[5] is mentioned and seems more concerned with drunkenness then the mead itself. However it has been noted that this section may link Havamal with Skaldskaparmal, in that the Heron is famous for spontaneous regurgitation as well as gluttony, drinking, drunkenness^[6] and defecation as a form of defence. All these points are relevant to Skaldskaparmal, spontaneous regurgitation and regurgitating the mead into vats, gluttony, drinking and drunkenness are represented in Odinn’s quaffing all three vats of mead and finally, defecation as a form of defence.^[7] That drunkenness and vomiting are part of established Odinnic tradition, evidenced by two sections of Egil’s saga; firstly in his treatment of Armond^[8], who he vomits on and later blinds in one eye, but also in the poem Sonnartorrek^[9]. when he states that the words don’t come as easy as the mead from Odinn’s throat.

The second Section (strophes 80-110) mentions two of Odinn’s love stories. Havamal firstly deals with Odinn’s encounter with Billing’s daughter where he is tricked and humiliated. The second is related to his dealings with Gunnlod whom he tricks and leaves humiliated, so as to gain the mead of poetry. The incident with Billing’s daughter has often been compared with Skirnismal (96-101). In both stories the Gods are victims of their own passions. Following this is a poem, essentially didactic but containing strong cultic elements (Strophe 111), called Loddfafnismal, the title indicates that the speaker is Loddfafnir. It is clear from the verse that it is Loddfafnir who is receiving the advice and possibly Odinn who is reciting it. The fourth section, the Runatals, is mainly concerned with Odinn’s self sacrifice (138-145). This section has been a point of interest for scholars of Germanic religion with a possible allusion to initiatory ritual and its common associations of trial by ordeal, symbolic death and a change of state in the initiated. The last section of Havamal, called Ljodatal, is didactic, focusing on the transmission of arcane knowledge, much like Sigdrifumal. The similarities to Sigdrifumal are strong as it is also a didactic poem, which contains rules of conduct as well as magical uses for the runes, importantly Sigurd is a favourite of Odinn, so it seems fitting that he learn rune magic.

Most of the poem is advice about social conduct, mixed with wisdom sayings, the tone of which seems cynical and suspicious. The very first stanza is similar to the cautious warning we see on page two of Snorri’s Edda, that caution is needed when entering unknown areas. This is appropriate to a Norwegian Viking context where life was violent and often treacherous^[10]. The poem is not all cynical and also deals with issues such as the value of friendship, loyalty, bravery and moderation. Suprisingly there is little talk of King or kin, ideas central to Nordic society, supporting a Viking context for Havamal, since on Viking voyages traditional loyalties are less important than the loyalties which need to develop in warrior bands, especially that of friendship^[11]. It also may be due to the nature of the warrior band that one of the most important themes in Havamal is the importance of moderation. According to Havamal moderation is to be practised in all things when eating, drinking and even moderation of wisdom is stressed. This may have suited the communal life of a warrior band. The didactic sections of this poem have been likened to other forms of wisdom literature, particularly Ecclesiastics^[12]. Due to the general nature of wisdom literature it would be hard to prove any connection. Wisdom literature is comprised of general ideas produced without authority, and is a genre which is common in Old English and Norse. It is not surprising that concepts like ‘travel broadens the mind’ are expressed in more then one culture. Typological similarities occur in wisdom literature because these wisdom sayings embody widely valid truths^[13].

Havamal also has a mystical component and contains important narratives on Odinn’s life such as his self sacrifice on Yggdrasil, a narrative which has been interpreted as relating to sacrifice and initiation. It is this narrative which provides an important link with Odinn and death. Odinn returns from the world of the dead enriched, transformed by knowledge from the other world. Sacrifice and initiation are logically very similar, both acts are ritualised acts whose aim is transformation. The three components of sacrificial ritual are also present in initiation, i) performance roles, ii) sequence of action, iii) effect^[14]. Sacrifice has been broken down into four performance roles i) victim, ii) sacrificer, iii) sacrifier/ beneficiary, iv) deity (Hubert and Mauss^[15]). The role of victim and sacrifier/ beneficiary are intimately linked by logical homology^[16]. In initiation the same roles are performed but the sacrifier and the victim are united as both victim and beneficiary- i)Initiand/ beneficiary, ii) initiator, iii) deity. Odinn’s sacrifice can also be analysed in terms of a three phase process of attaining knowledge. The seeker of knowledge moves from the bondage of ignorance, through atonement towards awakening into the light of knowledge. A process which can also be seen in Odinn’s ordeal in Grimnismal, here like Havamal we see Odinn bound (Fetter breaker, Havamal 149), gaining a drink, and then expounding wisdom. The names given by Snorri to the three vats of mead in his version of the tale in Skalskaparmal are interesting in this regard, i) Bodn- a drinking container, also the underworld and has been interpreted as the restraint of death. ii) Son- atonement. iii) Othroerir- vital spirit, a rebirth into a more vital productive life. This process is further evidenced by two poets, Kormakr calls Odinn Hapt soenir-The one who provides atonement, also in Egil’s Sonnatorekk, i) Egil’s tongue has been fettered by grief, ii) via the atonement of poetry, iii) the fetter is broken and the divine inspiration wells up.

Another important narrative is the winning of the mead of poetic inspiration which is alluded to three times in this poem. Firstly (strophes 13,14) where we see a variant version of the tale of Odinn and Gunnlod. Secondly (104-110) we have a version of the tale which closely resembles the version given us by Snorri and finally (140,141) Odinn gains a sip after his ordeal on the tree. Snorri could not have got the detailed version in Skaldskaparmal (p. 61-64) purely from Havamal, which is not a detailed account, but merely a series of allusions to the mead. The myth seems of secondary importance in Havamal’s narratives, it is what is illustrated which seem to be stressed, other ideas such as drunkenness, male/female relations and Odinn’s retrieval of information from the nether world. Possibly Snorri had more then one source for his version in Skaldskaparmal. The myths of Odinn winning the mead of poetry are reflected in other Indo-European myths which relate to the gaining of wisdom, particularly the story of Finn and the salmon of wisdom, also Indra and his drink soma. Other poems in the Edda also reflect this story particularly Fafnismal (31-32) which also echoes the story of Finn and the Salmon of wisdom.

Significant for the study of Norse religion in its more mystical aspects are Odinn’s discourses on magic, the runes and their uses. It demonstrates that they had a meaning which was beyond their simple letter value, Turville- Petre suggests that their original purpose was for magic and not writing^[17]. He says that the runes are “reginkudr”^[18] or divine, gained from the world of death, and associated with burials, which is evidenced by the runic inscriptions on memorial stones. The magical association is corroborated textually by Ynglinga’s saga^[19], Sigdrifumal^[20], Egil’s Saga^[21] as well as being twice mentioned in this regard in Havamal (111 and 138-164). These sections of Havamal have also inspired many to attempt to recreate ‘Rune magic’^[22]. Despite this we must also consider that the runes may have become mystified by their association with a new technology, that of literacy, and the inscriptions on memorial stones may be more indicative of care for the dead and respect for ancestors, than of mystical associations for runes.

Havamal was not directly quoted in Snorri’s Edda, raising the issue of whether he had access to this myth. Considering Snorri’s reputation as having read all the vernacular Norse texts contemporary with his day and that Snorri had access to oral sources as well^[23] its likely that Snorri had access to Havamal. Odinn’s self sacrifice is also suspiciously absent in Snorri’s Edda, perhaps this was deliberate on Snorri’s part because of its connection with the cult of the high god Odinn^[24]. A clue to this omission might be found in Snorri’s treatment of Odinn’s association with magic in Ynglinga Saga^[25] where “sorcery is attended by such wickedness that manly men consider it shameful to practise it and so it is taught only to priestesses.”^[26]. Odinn is often seen as being the transgressor of boundaries, he breaks oaths, has access to the other world, and by his practise of sorcery he transgresses sexual boundaries in a world where the masculine ideal is paramount^[27]. These concepts and the implied sexual nature of many magical and sacrificial acts^[28] might not have appealed to Snorri’s Christian Aristocratic audience. However Snorri also wrote Ynglinga saga, where he does not hesitate to mention that Odinn was involved in sorcery and that this was considered ergi (unmanly-effeminate). Perhaps there are other reasons why Snorri neglected Odinn’s sacrifice. The initiatory nature of this section of Havamal may provide another clue as to why it was omitted by Snorri, initiatory rituals are quite often associated with secrecy and exclusion of no initiates. If Havamal represents such initiatory ritual perhaps it was omitted by Snorri out of respect for secrecy or the poem may only have been known by a few select initiates, the fact that Havamal is only found in one Icelandic manuscript^[29] might be evidence of this.

The preservation of poetics dedicated to Odinn is not surprising when one considers his role as God of poetic inspiration, and his role in the winning of the mead of poetry. There are many scaldic kennings for poetry which refer to the narrative of the theft. Odinn himself is said to speak only in poetry^[30]. That the poet’s love for this God is probably related to him being patron of poetic inspiration is corroborated by the first stanza of Egil’s Sonnatorrek;

“My mouth strains To move my tongue,
To weigh and wing The choice word:
Not easy to breath Odinn’s Inspiration
In my heart’s hinterland, little hope there.”^[31]

The position of the poet in relation to the narratives in Havamal is also interesting and reflects latter developments in prose works which feature poet as protagonist. The best example of this is Egil’s saga where the story is developed through an interplay of verse and prose. Here verse adds emotional depth to an otherwise action based narrative, the verse highlights the personal intellectual life of the protagonist and thus intensifies the prose narrative by demonstrating how the poet is emotionally interacting with the events of the narrative. This is a unique development in the northern literary tradition, however the poets were set a divine precedent in their God Odinn, a God who plays the role of chief protagonist in Snorri’s Edda, a god who speaks in poetry.^[32]

Havamal with its combination of narrative and wisdom sayings is essentially a compilation of works dedicated to Odinn. The wisdom literature contains social pointers which would have been fitting to a tenth century Norwegian Viking setting, and is quite general in nature. The two main Odinnic narratives dealt with in the text of the poem are his winning of the mead of poetry, which is mentioned three times, and his self sacrifice, a narrative neglected in Snorri’s Edda. The treatment of these narratives leaves open the question of whether they may contain initiatory elements linked to the quest for knowledge. This is supported by the fact that Odinns ordeal on Yggdrassil has sacrificial elements which are placed in a narrative about the gaining of wisdom, ritual death is a common feature of initiation. Perhaps the Odinnic cult was an initiatory cult which was closely guarded by nobles and especially poets, this might explain the abundance of literary evidence, and lack of physical or place name evidence surviving for an Odinnic cult. Whether this was the case is probably impossible to tell, yet one must accept that Havamal would have provided many mystical features to such a cult. This is best seen in the Runatals and Ljodatal where wisdom seeking and magic are primary. Over all it is very difficult to say how Havamal effected the Northern mind, many modern commentators skim over the wisdom literature and focus on the mythic narratives, however this might not have been the case in tenth century Scandinavia where the revelations of Odinn may have been of utmost importance, especially in the performance of magic.

Hollander, Lee. M. (ed. and trans.) The Poetic Edda. (Second Edition) The University of Texas Press, Austin. 1996.

Turville-Petre, E.O.G. Myth and religion in the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. University of Oxford Press. London. (1964).

The Cult of Odinn in Iceland. Nine Norse Studies. Course Book. Germanic Religion. Sydney University. (1997). (No reference in course book)

Kristjansson, J. Foote, P (ed). Eddas and Sagas: Iceland’s Medieval literature. Hid islenska bokmenntafelag. Reykjavik. (1988).

Dronke, U. Myth and Fiction in early Norse Lands. Variorum. Vermont. (1996).

Palsson, H. Edwards, P. (eds.) Egil’s Saga. Penguin Books. Ringwood Victoria. (1976.).

Turville-Petre, E.O.G. Origins of Icelandic Literature. The Clarendon Press. Oxford. (1953).

Clunies-Ross, M. Prolonged Echoes: Old Norse Myths in Medieval Northern Society. Odense University Press. Canberra. (1994).

Sturluson, S. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. (Hollander L. trans.) University of Texas Press, Austin. (1991).

Meulengracht-Sorensen, P. The Unmanly man. Odense University Press. Canberra. (1992)